The Interaction Between Gender and Environmental Risk in the Presentations of Psychopathy
Pinhan Zhu
25/09/2026
Psychopathy has historically been studied using predominantly male, forensic, and incarcerated populations, limiting understanding of how psychopathy develops and is expressed within the general population, particularly among females. This literature review examined how sex and gender-related factors may interact with environmental influences to shape the development and expression of psychopathy-related traits from childhood through young adulthood. Peer-reviewed empirical studies and review articles investigating community and other non-forensic samples were synthesized, with particular attention to childhood adversity, parenting practices, family functioning, peer environments, and differences in psychopathy-related outcomes across males and females. Importantly, the studies reviewed did not all measure the same construct: some examined psychopathy directly, whereas others assessed narrower but related constructs, including callous-unemotional (CU) traits, impulsive antisociality, conduct problems, or delinquent behavior. Across the reviewed literature, environmental experiences were associated with the development of psychopathy-related traits; however, direct evidence that the same environmental exposure has different effects depending on sex or gender remains limited. While boys more commonly exhibited overt aggression and traditional externalizing behaviors, girls in some studies demonstrated relational aggression, internalizing symptoms, and interpersonal dysfunction alongside psychopathy-related traits. The review also highlights important limitations in the current literature, including the historical reliance on male-based conceptualizations of psychopathy, substantial differences in measurement and operational definitions, and the limited number of longitudinal community studies directly examining sex or gender as a moderator of environmental risk. Together, these findings suggest that psychopathy-related development is associated with complex interactions among environmental experiences, developmental processes, and individual differences, emphasizing the importance of more precise, sex- and gender-sensitive research and assessment.